DIGITAL NOTES
THERMODYNAMICS
(20A03302)
B.Tech II Year I Semester
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DR. K.V.SUBBA REDDY INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
DEPATMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, Dr. K.V.S.R.I.T
DR. K.V.SUBBA REDDY INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
L
T/P/D
C
4
1
4
|
II Year B. Tech ME-II
Sem
Objectives:
(R17A0303) THERMODYNAMICS
·
To understand the concepts of energy transformation, conversion of heat into work.
·
To understand the fundamentals of
Differences between work producing and work
consuming cycles.
·
To
apply the concepts of thermodynamics to basic energy
systems.
UNIT-I
Basic Concepts : System - Types
of Systems - Control Volume - Macroscopic and Microscopic viewpoints - Thermodynamic Equilibrium- State, Property, Process, Cycle –
Reversibility – Quasi static Process, Irreversible Process, Causes of Irreversibility – Work and Heat, Point
and Path functions. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics – Principles of
Thermometry –Constant Volume gas
Thermometer – Scales of Temperature – PMM I - Joule’s Experiment – First law of Thermodynamics – Corollaries – First law applied to a Process – applied
to a flow system
– Steady
Flow Energy Equation.
UNIT-II
Limitations of the First Law - Thermal
Reservoir, Heat Engine, Heat pump, Parameters of performance, Second Law of Thermodynamics, Kelvin-Planck and Claudius
Statements and their Equivalence /
Corollaries, PMM of Second kind, Carnot’s principle, Carnot cycle and its specialties, Clausius Inequality, Entropy,
Principle of Entropy Increase – Energy Equation, Availability and Irreversibility – Thermodynamic Potentials,
Gibbs and Helmholtz Functions, Maxwell
Relations – Elementary Treatment of the Third Law of Thermodynamics.
UNIT-III
Pure Substances: p-V-T- surfaces,
T-S and h-s diagrams, Mollier
Charts, Phase Transformations – Triple point at critical
state properties during change of phase, Dryness Fraction – Mollier charts – Various Thermodynamic processes and
energy Transfer – Steam Calorimetry.
Perfect Gas Laws – Equation of State, specific and Universal Gas constants – Various Non-flow processes, properties,
end states, Heat and Work Transfer, changes in
Internal Energy – Throttling and Free Expansion Processes – Flow
processes – Deviations from perfect
Gas Model – Vander
Waals Equation of State.
UNIT-IV
Mixtures of perfect Gases : Mole Fraction,
Mass friction Gravimetric and volumetric Analysis – Dalton’s Law of partial
pressure, Avogadro’s Laws of additive volumes – Mole fraction , Volume fraction and partial pressure, Equivalent Gas
constant, Enthalpy, sp. Heats and
Entropy of Mixture of perfect Gases, Vapour, and Atmospheric
air - Psychrometric Properties – Dry bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb Temperature, Dew point Temperature, Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature, Specific Humidity, Relative
Humidity, saturated Air, Vapour pressure, Degree of saturation – Adiabatic Saturation – Psychometric chart.
UNI-V
Power Cycles : Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual Combustion cycles description and representation
on P–V and T-S diagram, Thermal Efficiency, Mean Effective Pressures on Air standard
basis – Comparison of Cycles. Basic Rankine cycle
– Performance Evaluation.
TEXT BOOKS:
1.
Engineering Thermodynamics, Special Edition. MRCET,
McGrahill Publishers.
2.
Engineering Thermodynamics / PK Nag /TMH, III Edition
3.
Thermodynamics – J.P.Holman / McGrawHill
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1.
Engineering Thermodynamics – Jones & Dugan
2.
Thermodynamics – An
Engineering Approach – Yunus Cengel
& Boles /TMH
3.
An
introduction to Thermodynamics / YVC Rao / New Age
4.
Engineering Thermodynamics – K. Ramakrishna / Anuradha Publisher
OUTCOMES:
· Learner should be able to demonstrate understanding of basic concepts of thermodynamics.
· To differentiate between quality and quantity of energy, heat and work, enthalpy and entropy, etc.
·
To Analyze basic power cycles, Apply the
laws of thermodynamics to various real life
systems
COURSE COVERAGE
S.NO |
NAME OF THE UNIT |
NAME OF THE TEXTBOOK |
CHAPTERS COVERED |
1 |
Basic Concepts |
Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag Engineering Thermodynamics – K.
Ramakrishna |
1,2,3 1,2 |
2 |
Limitations of the First
Law |
Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag |
2,3,4 |
3 |
Pure Substances |
Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag Engineering Thermodynamics – K.
Ramakrishna |
3,4,5,6 4,5,6 |
4 |
Mixtures of
perfect Gases |
Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag |
3,4,5,6,7,8 |
5 |
Power
Cycles |
Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag |
7,8,9,10 |
CONTENTS
S.No |
Name of the Unit |
Page No |
1 |
Basic
Concepts |
2 |
2 |
Limitations of the First
Law |
18 |
3 |
Pure
Substances |
56 |
4 |
Mixtures of perfect Gases |
73 |
5 |
Power
Cycles |
95 |
6 |
Question Bank |
116 |
7 |
Case Study |
123 |
UNIT I
System:
A
thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
which is selected for the study.
Suroundings:
The mass or region
outside the system
is called surroundings.
Boundary:
The
real or imaginary surfaces which separates the system and surroundings is
called boundary. The real or
imaginary surfaces which separates the system and surroundings is called boundary.
Types of thermodynamic system
On the basis of mass
and energy transfer the thermodynamic system is divided into three types.
1.
Closed system
2.
Open system
3.
Isolated system
Closed
system: A system
in which the transfer of energy but not mass can takes place across the boundary is called closed
system. The mass inside the closed system remains constant.
For example: Boiling of water in
a closed vessel. Since the water is boiled in closed vessel so the mass of water cannot escapes out of
the boundary of the system but heat energy continuously
entering and leaving the boundary of the vessel. It is an example of closed system.
Open
system: A system
in which the transfer of both mass and energy takes place is called an open system. This system is also known as control
volume.
For example: Boiling of water in
an open vessel is an example of open system because the water and heat
energy both enters and leaves
the boundary of the vessel.
Isolated
system: A system
in which the transfer of mass and energy cannot takes place is called an isolated system.
For example: Tea present in a thermos flask. In this the heat and the mass of the tea cannot cross the boundary
of the thermos flask.
Hence the thermos
flak is an isolated system.
Control Volume:
Ø
It’s a system of fixed volume.
Ø
This type of system is
usually referred to as "open system”
or a "control volume"
Ø
Mass transfer
can take place
across a control
volume.
Ø
Energy transfer may also occur into or out of
the system.
Ø
Control Surface-
It’s the boundary
of a control volume across which the transfer of both
mass and energy takes place.
Ø The mass of a control volume (open system) may or may not be fixed.
Ø When the net influx of mass across the control surface equals zero then the mass of the system
is fixed and vice-versa.
Ø The identity
of mass in a control volume always changes unlike the case for a control mass
system (closed system).
Ø Most of the engineering devices, in general,
represent an open system or control
Ø
volume.
Example:
Heat exchanger
- Fluid enters and leaves the system continuously with the transfer
of heat across the system
boundary.
Pump - A continuous
flow of fluid takes place through the system with a transfer
of mechanical energy
from the surroundings to the system
Microscopic Approach:
Ø The approach
considers that the system is made up of a very large number of discrete
particles known as molecules. These molecules have different velocities are energies.
The values of these energies
are constantly changing
with time. This approach
to thermodynamics, which is concerned directly
with the structure of the matter, is
known as statistical thermodynamics.
Ø The behavior of
the system is found by using statistical methods, as the number of molecules
is very large. So advanced
statistical and mathematical methods are needed
to explain the changes in the system.
Ø The properties
like velocity, momentum, impulse, kinetic energy and instruments cannot easily measure
force of impact etc. that describe the molecule.
Ø Large numbers of
variables are needed to describe a system. So the approach is complicated.
Macroscopic Approach:
Ø In this approach a certain quantity
of matter is considered without
taking into account the events occurring at molecular
level. In other words this approach to thermodynamics is concerned with gross or overall behavior.
This is known as classical
thermodynamics.
Ø
The analysis
of macroscopic system
requires simple mathematical formula.
Ø The value of the
properties of the system are their average values. For examples consider a sample of gas in a closed
container. The pressure of the gas is the average value of the pressure
exerted by millions of individual molecules.
Ø
In order to describe a system only a few properties are needed.
S.No |
Macroscopic Approach |
Microscopic Approach |
1 |
In this
approach a certain quantity of matter is considered without
taking into account the
events occurring at molecular level. |
The matter is considered to be comprised of a large
number of tiny
particles known as molecules, which
moves randomly in chaotic fashion. The effect of molecular motion is considered. |
2 |
Analysis is concerned with
overall behavior of the system. |
The Knowledge
of the structure of matter is
essential in analyzing the behavior
of the system. |
3 |
This approach is used in the
study of classical thermodynamics. |
This approach is used
in the study
of statistical thermodynamics. |
4 |
A few
properties are required to describe the system. |
Large numbers of variables are required to describe the
system. |
5 |
The properties like pressure, temperature, etc. needed to describe the system, can be
easily measured. |
The properties like velocity, momentum, kinetic energy, etc.
needed to describe the system, cannot be measured easily. |
6 |
The properties of the system are their average values. |
The properties are defined for each molecule individually. |
7 |
This approach requires simple mathematical formulas for analyzing the system. |
No. of molecules are very large
so it requires advanced statistical and mathematical method to explain any change in the system. |
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
A thermodynamic system is said to
exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any macroscopic property
is registered if the system is isolated
from its surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in the course of time a state of thermodynamic equilibrium and can
never depart from it spontaneously.
Therefore, there can be no
spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the system exists in an equilibrium state. A
thermodynamic system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if the system is the state of Mechanical
equilibrium, Chemical equilibrium and Thermal equilibrium.
Ø Mechanical equilibrium: The criteria for Mechanical equilibrium are the equality
of pressures.
Ø Chemical equilibrium: The criteria for Chemical equilibrium are the equality
of chemical potentials.
Ø Thermal equilibrium: The criterion for Thermal equilibrium is the equality
of temperatures.
State:
The thermodynamic state of a
system is defined by specifying values of a set of measurable properties sufficient to determine all
other properties. For fluid systems, typical properties are pressure, volume and temperature. More complex systems
may require the specification
of more unusual properties. As an example, the state of an electric battery requires the specification of the amount
of electric charge it contains.
Property:
Properties may be extensive
or intensive.
Intensive
properties: The
properties which are independent of the mass of thesystem. For example: Temperature, pressure and density are the
intensive properties.
Extensive properties: The properties which depend on the size or extent of the system are called extensive properties.
For example:
Total mass, total
volume and total momentum.
Process:
When the system undergoes
change from one thermodynamic state to final state due change
in properties like temperature, pressure, volume etc, the system is said to have undergone
thermodynamic process.
Various types of thermodynamic processes are: isothermal process, adiabatic process,
isochoric process, isobaric process and reversible process.
Cycle:
Thermodynamic cycle
refers to any closed system that undergoes various changes due to temperature, pressure, and volume, however, its final and initial state are equal. This cycle is
important as it allows for the continuous process of a moving piston seen in
heat engines and the
expansion/compression of the working fluid in refrigerators, for example.
Without the cyclical process, a car
wouldn't be able to continuously move when fuel is added, or a refrigerator would not be able to stay cold.
Visually, any thermodynamic cycle will appear as a closed loop on a pressure volume diagram.
Examples: Otto cycle, Diesel
Cycle, Brayton Cycle etc.
Reversibility:
Reversibility, in
thermodynamics, a characteristic of certain processes (changes of a system from an initial state to a final state
spontaneously or as a result of interactions with other systems) that can be reversed, and the system restored to its
initial state, without leaving net effects
in any of the systems
involved.
An example of a
reversible process would be a single swing of a frictionless pendulum from one of its extreme positions to the other.
The swing of a real pendulum is irreversible
because a small amount of the mechanical energy of the pendulum would be
expended in performing work against
frictional forces, and restoration of the pendulum to its exact starting position would require the supply
of an equivalent amount of energy from a second system, such as a compressed spring in which an irreversible change of state
would occur.
Quasi static
process:
When a process is processing in such a
way that system will be
remained infinitesimally close with equilibrium state at each time,
such process will be termed as quasi static process or quasi equilibrium process.
In simple words, we
can say that if system is going under a thermodynamic process through succession of thermodynamic states and
each state is equilibrium state then the process will be termed as quasi
static process.
We will see one
example for understanding the quasi static process, but let us consider one simple example for better understanding of
quasi static process. If a person is coming down from roof to ground floor with the help of ladder steps then it
could be considered as quasi static
process. But if he jumps from roof to ground floor then it will not be a quasi
static process.
Weight placed over the piston is just balancing
the force which is exerted
in upward direction
by gas. If we remove the weight from the
piston, system will have unbalanced force and piston will move in upward
direction due to force acting over the piston in upward direction by the gas.
Irreversible Process:
The irreversible
process is also called the natural process because all the processes occurring in nature are irreversible processes. The
natural process occurs due to the finite gradient between the two states of the system. For instance, heat flow
between two bodies occurs due to the
temperature gradient between the two bodies; this is in fact the natural flow
of heat. Similarly, water flows from high level to low level, current moves from high potential to low
potential, etc.
Ø In the irreversible process
the initial state of the system and surroundings cannot be restored from the final state.
Ø
During the irreversible process
the various states of the system on the path of change
from initial state to final state are not in equilibrium with each other.
Ø
During the irreversible process
the entropy of the system increases decisively
and it cannot be reduced
back to its initial value.
Ø The phenomenon of a system undergoing irreversible process is called as irreversibility.
Causes of Irreversibility:
Friction: Friction is invariably present
in real systems. It causes irreversibility in the process as
work done does not show an equivalent rise in the kinetic or potential energy
of the system. The fraction of energy
wasted due to frictional effects leads to deviation from reversible states.
Free expansion: Free expansion refers to the
expansion of unresisted type such as expansion
in a vacuum. During this unresisted expansion the work interaction is
zero, and without the expense of any
work, it is not possible to restore initial states. Thus, free expansion is irreversible.
Heat transfer through a finite
temperature difference:
Heat transfer occurs only when there exist temperature difference between bodies undergoing heat transfer. During heat transfer, if heat addition is carried out
in a finite number of steps then after every step the new state shall be a non-equilibrium state.
Nonequilibrium during the process: Irreversibilities
are introduced due to lack of thermodynamic equilibrium during the
process. Non-equilibrium may be due to mechanical inequilibrium, chemical inequilibrium, thermal inequilibrium,
electrical inequilibrium, etc. and irreversibility is called mechanical irreversibility, chemical irreversibility, thermal irreversibility,
electrical irreversibility respectively. Factors discussed above are also
causing non-equilibrium during
the process and therefore make process irreversible.
Heat:
It
is the energy in transition between the system and the surroundings by virtue
of the difference in temperature Heat
is energy transferred from one system to another solely by reason of a temperature difference between
the systems. Heat exists only as it crosses the boundary of a system and the direction of heat transfer is from
higher temperature to lower temperature.
For thermodynamics sign convention, heat transferred to a system is positive; Heat transferred from a system is negative.
Work:
Thermodynamic definition
of work: Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect
external to the system could be reduced to the rise of a weight.
Work done BY the system is positive and work done ON
the system is negative.
Types of work interaction:
Ø
Expansion and compression work (displacement work)
Ø
Work of a reversible chemical cell
Ø
Work in stretching of a liquid
surface
Ø
Work done on elastic
solids
Ø
Work of polarization and magnetization
Point and Path functions:
Ø Point function
does not depend on the history (or path) of the system. It only depends
on the state of the system.
Ø Examples of
point functions are: temperature, pressure, density, mass, volume, enthalpy, entropy, internal
energy etc.
Ø Path function
depends on history of the system (or path by which system arrived at a given state).
Ø
Examples for path functions
are work and heat.
Ø Path functions
are not properties of the system, while point functions are properties of the system.
Ø
Change
in point function can be obtained by from the initial and final values of the function, whereas path has to defined in order to evaluate path functions.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
The Thermodynamics Zeroth Law
states that if two systems are at the same time in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in
equilibrium with each other.
If an object with a higher temperature comes in contact
with an object of lower temperature,
it will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will
approach the same temperature and in
the absence of loss to other objects, they will maintain a single constant
temperature. Therefore, thermal
equilibrium is attained.
If objects ‘A’ and ‘C’ are in thermal
equilibrium with ‘B’, then object ‘A’ is in thermal
equilibrium with object ‘C’. Practically this means all three objects
are at the same temperature and it forms the
basis for comparison of temperatures.
Principles of Thermometry:
Thermometry is the science and
practice of temperature measurement. Any measurable change in a thermometric probe (e.g. the dilatation of a liquid in a capillary tube, variation of electrical resistance of a conductor,
of refractive index of a transparent material, and so on) can be used to mark temperature levels, that should later be
calibrated against an internationally
agreed unit if the measure is to be related to other thermodynamic variables. Thermometry is sometimes split in metrological studies in two subfields: contact
thermometry and noncontact thermometry. As there can never be complete
thermal uniformity at large,
thermometry is always associated to a heat transfer problem with some space-time coordinates of measurement,
given rise to time-series plots and temperature maps.
Constant Volume gas Thermometer:
When we heat a gas keeping the
volume constant, its pressure increases and when we cool the gas its pressure decreases. The relationship between
pressure and temperature at constant volume is
given by the law of pressure. According
to this law, the pressure of a gas changes
by of its original pressure at 0oC for each degree centigrade (or
Celsius) rise in temperature at constant volume.
If Po is
the pressure of a given volume of a gas at 0oC and Pt is the pressure of the same volume
of the gas (i.e., at constant
volume) at toC, then
Pt Po
P P
Po t
273
(1 t )
t o
273
It consists of a glass bulb B connected to a tube A,
through a capillary glass tube ‘C’.
The tube A is connected to a mercury
reservoir R which is clamped on the board and can be lowered or raised whenever required to keep the volume of the
air constant. The capillary tube C is
provided with a three way stopper S and can be used to connect capillary and
bulb as well as to disconnect tube
from bulb B. A pointer is provided such that the end P is projecting inside from the upper part of
A. A scale calibrated in 0oC is provided between A and R.
The whole apparatus is leveled by adjusting the leveling screws. By
adjusting the stopper, the bulb ‘B’
is filled with air or some gas and the pointer is adjusted so that tip of the
pointer just touches the level of
mercury in the tube A. After filling
the bulb, it is kept in an ice bath for
some time till the air inside the bulb attains the temperature of ice at which
the mercury level becomes stationary.
Now the reservoir R is adjusted so that the level of mercury in the tube A just touches
the tip of the pointer P.
The difference between the
mercury levels in the two tubes is noted and let it be ho. If Po is
the pressure exerted by the
air in the bulb, then
Po P h0
Now ice bath is removed and the bulb B is surrounded with steam.
Scales of Temperature:
There are three temperature scales in use Fahrenheit, Celsius
and Kelvin. Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point
of water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the
interval between the two
being divided into 180 parts.
The conversion formula for a
temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is: F = 9/5C + 32.
Celsius temperature
scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based on 0 for the freezing
point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water.
Kelvin temperature
scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in the International System (SI) of
measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point (equilibrium among the solid,
liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure
water.
Joule experiment:
James P. Joule carried out his
famous experiment; he placed known amounts of water, oil, and mercury in an insulated container and
agitated the fluid with a rotating stirrer. The amounts of work done on the fluid by the stirrer were accurately measured,
and the temperature changes of the fluid were carefully noted. He found
for each fluid that a fixed amount of
work was required per unit mass for every degree of temperature rise caused by the stirring, and that the original
temperature of the fluid could be restored by the transfer of heat through simple contact with a
cooler object. In this experiment you can conclude there is a relationship between
heat and work or in other word heat is a form
of energy.
Internal Energy
Through, Joule experiment what
happen to energy between time it is added to water as work, and time it is extracted to heat? Logic suggests that this
energy contained in the water in
another form which called internal
energy.
Internal energy refers to energy
of molecules of substance which are ceaseless motion and possess kinetics energy.
The addition of heat to a substance
increases this molecular
activity, and thus causes an increase in its internal energy. Work done
on the substance can have the same
effect, as was shown by Joule. Internal energy cannot be directly measured; there are no internal-energy meters.
As a result, absolute values are unknown.
However, this is not a
disadvantage in thermodynamic analysis, because only changes in internal energy
are required.
First Law of Thermodynamics:
During a thermodynamic cycle, a
cyclic process the systems undergoes, the cyclic integral of heat added is equal to integral of work done. The first law equation
can also be written in the form,
§(dQ – dW) = 0
Equation dU = dQ – dW is a
corollary to the first law of thermodynamics. It shows that there exists a property internal energy (U) of
the system, such that a change in its value is equal to the difference in heat
entering and work leaving the system.
The First law of thermodynamics
states that energy is neither created nor destroyed. Thus the total energy of the universe is a
constant. However, energy can certainly be transferred from one form to another
form.
The 1st law
of thermodynamics can be mathematically stated as follows:
§dQ = §dW
Corollary 1:
There exists property
of closed system; the change in value of this property during the process
is given by the difference between heat supplied and work done.
dU
= dQ - dW
Here E is property of system and
is called as total energy that includes internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, electrical energy,
magnetic energy, chemical energy,
etc.
Corollary 2:
For the isolated system, heat and work both interactions are absent (d Q = 0, d W = 0) and E
= constant. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; but, it can be
converted from one form to other.
Corollary 3:
A perpetual
motion machine of first kind is almost
impossible.
Flow Process
Steady flow energy equation:
Virtually all the
practical systems involve flow of mass across the boundary separating the system and the surroundings. Whether
it be a steam turbine
or a gas turbine or a compressor or an automobile engine there
exists flow of gases/gas mixtures into and out of the system. So we must
know how the first Law of thermodynamics can be applied to an open system.
The fluid entering the system will have its own internal, kinetic and potential energies.
Let u1 be the specific internal
energy of the fluid entering
C1 be the velocity of the fluid while
entering Z1 be the potential energy of the fluid while entering
Similarly let u2, C2 and Z2 be respective entities while leaving.
Limitations of the First
Law:
Ø The
first law of thermodynamics merely indicates that in any process there is a transformation
between the various forms of energy involved in the process but provides no information regarding the feasibility of such transformation.
Ø
First law does not provide any information regarding
the direction processes
will take
whether it is a spontaneous or a non spontaneous process.
Thermal Reservoir:
A thermal reservoir is a large
system (very high mass x specific heat value) from which a quantity of energy can be absorbed or
added as heat without changing its temperature. The atmosphere and sea are examples of thermal reservoirs. Any
physical body whose thermal energy
capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or absorbs can
be modelled as a thermal
reservoir. A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat
is called a source and one that absorbs energy in the form of
heat is called a
sink.
Heat Engine:
It is a cyclically operating
device which absorbs energy as heat from a high temperature reservoir, converts part of the energy
into work and rejects the rest of the energy as heat to a thermal reservoir
at low temperature.
The working fluid is a substance,
which absorbs energy as heat from a source, and rejects energy as heat to a sink.
Schematic representation of Heat Engine
Heat pump:
A heat pump is a device that
transfers heat energy from a source of heat to what is called a heat sink. Heat pumps move thermal energy
in the opposite direction of spontaneous heat
transfer, by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a
warmer one. A heat pump uses a small
amount of external power to accomplish the work of transferring energy from the heat source to the heat sink. The most
common design of a heat pump involves four main
components – a condenser, an expansion valve, an evaporator and a compressor.
The heat transfer medium circulated
through these components is called
refrigerant.
Schematic representation of Heat
Pump Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of performance,
COP, of a refrigerator is defined as the heat removed from the cold reservoir Q cold, (i.e. inside a
refrigerator) divided by the work W done to remove the heat (i.e. the work done by the compressor).
COP - coefficient of performance - equation
As can be seen, the better (more
efficient) the refrigerator is when more heat Qcold can be removed
from the inside of the refrigerator for a given amount of work. Since the first law of thermodynamics must be valid also in
this case (Qcold + W = Qhot), we can rewrite the above equation:
The
COP for heating and cooling are thus different, because the heat reservoir of
interest is different. When one is
interested in how well a machine cools, the COP is the ratio of the heat removed from the cold reservoir to
input work. However, for heating, the COP is the ratio of the heat removed from the cold reservoir plus the input
work to the input work: medium to a high-temperature is called heat pump.
UNIT -III
Pure substance
A substance that has a fixed
chemical composition throughout the system is called a pure substance. Water, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
carbon monoxide, for example, are all pure
substance. A pure substance can also be a mixture
of various chemical
elements or compounds as long as the mixture is
homogeneous. Air, a mixture of several compounds, is often considered to be a pure substance because it has a uniform
chemical composition. “A mixture of
two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the
same. A mixture of ice and liquid water, for
example, is a pure substance because both phases have the
same chemical composition.”
PVT Surface
Pressure can be expressed
as a function of temperature and specific volume:
p
= p(T, v). The plot of p
= p(T, v) is a surface called p-v-T surface.
Figure 3.1 shows the p-v-T surface of
a substance such as water that expands on freezing.
Figure 3.1 p-v-T surface and projections for a substance
that expands on freezing.
(a) 3-D view (b) p-T diagram (c) p-v diagram2.
The location of a point on the p-v-T
surface gives the values of pressure, specific volume, and temperature at equilibrium. The
regions on the p-v-T surface labeled solid, liquid, and vapor are single-phase regions. The
state of a single phase is determined by any two of the properties: pressure, temperature, and specific volume. The
two-phase regions where two phases
exist in equilibrium separate the single-phase regions. The two-phase regions
are: liquid-vapor, solid-liquid, and
solid-vapor. Temperature and pressure are dependent within the two-phase regions. Once the
temperature is specified, the pressure is determined and vice versa. The states within the two-phase regions can be fixed
by specific volume and either temperature or pressure.
The projection of
the p-v-T surface onto the p-T plane is known as the phase diagram as shown in Figure 3.1 (b). The two-phase
regions of the p-v-T surface reduce
to lines in the phase diagram. A
point on any of these lines can represent any two-phase mixture at that particular temperature and pressure. The
triple line of the p-v-T surface projects onto a point on the phase diagram called the
triple point. Three phases coexist on the triple line or the triple point.
The constant
temperature lines of the p-v diagram
are called the isotherms. For any specified
temperature less than the critical temperature, the pressure remains constant within the two- phase region even though
specific volume changes. In the single-phase liquid and vapor regions the pressure decreases at fixed temperature
as specific volume increases. For
temperature greater than or equal to the critical temperature, there is no
passage across the two-phase liquid-vapor region.
Figure 3.1-2
T-v diagram for water
(to scale).
Figure 3.1-2 is a T-v diagram for water. For pressure
greater than or equal to the critical
pressure, temperature increases continously at fixed pressure as the specific
volume increases and there is no
passage across the two-phase liquid-vapor region. The isobaric curve marked 50 MPa in Figure 3.1-2 shows
this behavior. For pressure less than the critical value, there is a two-phase
region where the temperature remains
constant at a fixed pressure as the two- phase region is
traversed. The isobaric curve with values of 20 MPa or less in Figure 3.1-2 shows the constant temperature during the phase change.
At 100oC,
the saturated volumes of liquid and vapor water are 1.0434 cm3/g and 1,673.6 cm3/g, respectively.
The quality of steam is the mass fraction of water vapor in a mixture of liquid and vapor water. The
specific volume of 100oC steam with a quality of 0.65 is given
by
v
= (1 - 0.65)vL + 0.65 vV = (0.35)(1.0434)
+ (0.65)(1,673.6) = 1088.2 cm3/g
Phase Behavior:
We will consider a
phase change of 1 kg of liquid water contained within a piston-cycinder assembly as shown in Figure 3.2-1a. The water is
at 20oC and 1.014 bar (or 1 atm) as indicated by point (1) on
Figure 3.2-2.
Figure 3.2-1
Phase change
at constant pressure
for water3
Figure 3.2-2 Sketch
of T-v diagram for water
As the water is heated at constant pressure,
the temperature increases
with a slight increase in specific volume until the system reaches point (f). This is the
saturated liquid state
corresponding to 1.014 bar. The saturation temperature for water at 1.014 bar is 100oC.
The liquid states along the line segment 1-f are called subcooled or compressed liquid states. When the
system is at the saturated liquid state
(point f in Figure 3.2-2) any additional heat will cause the liquid to
evaporate at constant pressure as
shown in Figure 3.2-1b. When a mixture of liquid and vapor exists in equilibrium, the liquid phase is
a saturated liquid and the vapor phase is a saturated vapor.
Liquid water
continues to evaporate with additional heat until it becomes all saturated vapor at point (g). Any further
heating will cause an increase in both temperature
and specific volume and the saturated vapor becomes superheated vapor denoted by point (s) in Figure
3.2-2. For a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture, the quality x is defined
as the mass fraction of vapor in the mixture
x = mvapor
mvapor + mliquid
When a substance exists as part
liquid and part vapor at saturation conditions, its quality (x) is defined as the
ratio of the mass of the vapor
to the total mass of both
vapor and liquid.
Enthalpy–Entropy Chart
An enthalpy–entropy
chart, also known as the H–S chart or Mollier diagram, plots the total heat against entropy, describing the enthalpy
of a thermodynamic system. A typical chart covers
a pressure range of 0.01–1000 bar, and temperatures up to 800 degrees Celsius.
It shows enthalpy H in terms of internal energy U, pressure
p and volume V using the relationship H=U+pV or, in terms of specific enthalpy,
specific entropy and specific volume.
On the diagram, lines of constant pressure, constant
temperature and volume are plotted,
so in a two-phase region, the lines of constant pressure and temperature
coincide. Thus, coordinates on the diagram
represent entropy and heat.
A vertical
line in the h–s chart represents an isentropic process.
The process 3–4 in a Rankine cycle is isentropic when the steam turbine is said to be an ideal one. So the expansion
process in a turbine can be easily calculated using the h–s chart when the
process is considered to be ideal
(which is the case normally when calculating enthalpies, entropies, etc. Later the deviations from the ideal
values and they can be calculated considering the isentropic efficiency
of the steam turbine used.
Lines of constant
dryness fraction (x), sometimes called the quality, are drawn in the wet region and lines of constant temperature are drawn in the superheated region. X gives the
fraction (by mass) of
gaseous substance in the wet region, the remainder being colloidal liquid droplets. Above the heavy
line, the temperature is above the boiling point, and the dry (superheated) substance is gas only.
Characteristics of the critical
point:
Ø For saturated
phase often its enthalpy is an important property.
Ø Enthalpy-pressure charts
are used for refrigeration cycle analysis.
Ø Enthalpy-entropy charts
for water are used for steam cycle
analysis.
Ø Note: Unlike pressure, volume and temperature which have specified
numbers associated with it, in the case of internal
energy, enthalpy (and entropy) only changes
are required. Consequently, a base (or datum) is defined -as you have seen in the case of water.
Let V be total volume
of liquid vapour mixture of quality x, Vfthe volume of saturated liquid and Vg the volume of saturated vapour, the
corresponding masses being m, mf and mg respectively.
Now, m = mf + mg V = Vf+ Vg
m v= mfvf+ mgvg
Saturation States
When
a liquid and its vapour are in equilibrium at certain pressure and temperature,
only the pressure or the temperature
i is s sufficient to identify
the saturation state.
If
pressure is given, the temperature of the mixture gets fixed, which is known as
saturation temperature, or if the temperature is given, the saturation
pressure gets fixed.
Saturation
liquid or saturated vapour has only on independent variable, i.e. only one property is required to b known to fix up the state.
Type of Steam
Wet
steam:
Wet steam is defined
as steam which is partly
vapour and partly liquid suspended
in it. It means that evaporation of water is not complete.
Dry saturated steam:
When the wet steam
is further heated,
and it does not contain
any suspended particles of water, it is known
as dry saturated steam.
Superheated steam: When the dry steam is further
heated at constant pressure, thus raising its temperature, it is called superheated
steam.
Measurement of Steam Quality:
The state of a pure substance
gets fixed if two independent properties are given. A pure substance is thus said to have two degrees of freedom.
Of all thermodynamic properties, it
is easiest to measure
the pressure and temperature of a substance. Therefore, whenever pressure and temperature are independent
properties, it is the practice to measure them to determine that state
of the substance.
Types of Calorimeters used for measurement of Steam Quality
Ø Barrel Calorimeter
Ø Separating Calorimeter
Ø Throttling Calorimeter
Ø Combined Separating and Throttling calorimeter
Barrel Calorimeter
Dryness
fraction of steam can be found out very conveniently by barrel calorimeter as shown in figure. A vessel contains a
measured quantity of water. Also water equivalent of the vessel is determined experimentally and stamped platform of weighing machine.
Sample
of steam is passed through the sampling tube into fine exit holes for discharge
of steam in the cold water.
The steam gets
condensed and the temperature of water rises. The weighing machine gives the steam condensed.
From the law of conservation of energy,
Where, x = quantity
of steam in the main pipe hfg = latent heat of vaporization at pressure p
Cp = specific heat of water at
constant pressure p m = mass of steam condensed
M =Equivalent mass of water at
commencement tS =Sat.
temperature;
t1 = temperature of Water
at commencement
t2 = final temperature after steam has condensed
Separating Calorimeter
The wet steam enters
at the top from the main steam pipe through holes in the sampling pipe facing up stream which should be as
far as possible downstream from elbows and valves
to ensure representative sample of steam when in operation the wet steam
entering passes down the central
passage and undergoes a sudden reversal of direction of motion when strikes perforated cup.
Advantages:
Quick determination of dryness
fraction of very wet steam Disadvantages:
It leads to inaccuracy due to incomplete separation of water
Dryness fraction
calculated is always greater
than actual dryness
fraction.
Throttling Calorimeter
In the throttling calorimeter, a
sample of wet steam of mass m and at pressure P1 is taken from the steam main through a perforated
sampling tube. Then it is throttled by the partially-opened valve (or orifice)
to a pressure P2 measured by mercury
manometer, and temperature t2, so that after throttling the steam is in the superheated
region.
The steady flow
energy equation gives the enthalpy after throttling as equal to enthalpy before throttling. The initial and final
equilibrium states 1 and 2 are joined by a dotted line since throttling is irreversible (adiabatic but not isentropic)
and the intermediate states are non-equilibrium states not describable by thermodynamic coordinates. The initial state (wet) is given by P1and x1 and the final state by P2 and t2.
Advantages:
Dryness fraction
of very dry steam can be found out easily.
Disadvantages:
It is not possible
to find dryness
fraction of very wet steam.
Combined Separating and Throttling calorimeter
When the steam is
very wet and the pressure after throttling is not low enough to take the steam to the superheated region, then a
combined separating and throttling calorimeter is used for the measurement of quality.
Steam from the main
is first passed through a separator where some part of the moisture separates
out due to the sudden change in direction and falls by gravity, and the partially
dry vapour is then
throttled and taken to the superheated region.
1. Calculate the dryness fraction of steam which has 1.5 kg
of water in
suspension with 50 kg of steam. Given
In Fig. process 1-2
represents the moisture separation from the wet sample of steam at constant
pressure P1 and process 2-3
represents throttling to pressure P2. With P2 and t3 being measured, h3 can
be found out from the superheated steam table.
Therefore x2, the
quality of steam after partial moisture separation can be evaluated If m kg of steam, is taken through the sampling
tube in t s, m1 kg of it is separated, and m2 kg is throttled and then condensed to water and collected, then m = m1
+ m2 and at state 2, the mass of dry
vapour will be x2 m2. Therefore, the quality
of the
sample of steam at state l, x1 is given by . .
Mass of water (mf) =
1.5 kg Mass of steam (mg) = 50 kg
Required : Dryness fraction
(x) Solution
m
g Dryness fraction (x) = -
mg + mf
50
= -------------- = 0.971 Ans
50 1.5
Eg. Steam is generated at 8 bar from water at 32oC.
Determine the heat required to produce 1 kg of steam (a) when the dryness fraction
is 0.85 (b) when steam is dry saturated and (c) when the steam is superheated to 305oC. The specific heat of superheated steam may be taken as 2.093 kJ/kg-K.
Given:
Steam pressure
(p) = 8 bar
Initial temperature of water (T1)
= 32oC Mass of steam (m) = 1 kg
Required: Heat required when (a) x =
0.85
(b) x = 1 (c) Tsup
= 305oC
Solution:(a)
SH LH
T
170.4
32oC
Heat
required = Sensible heat
addition + Latent heat addition
Sensible heat addition = m Cpw (ts – T1) ts = saturation temperature = 170.4oC at 8 bar
from steam table Cpw
= Specific heat at constant pressure = 4.186 kJ/kg (Taken)
Sensible Heat addition = 1 x 4.186 x (170.4 – 32)
= 79.34
kJ/kg
Latent heat addition / kg =
x hfg
Latent heat (hfg) = 2046.5 kJ/kg from steam table at 8 bar Latent
heat addition for ‘m’ kg = m x hfg
= 1 x 0.85
x (2046.5)
= 1739.525
kJ/kg
Total heat required = 579.34 +
1739.525
= 2318.865 kJ/kg --- Ans
(b)
(b)
T
170.4oC
Heat
required = Sensible heat addition + Latent heat addition Latent heat addition /
kg = x hfg
Latent heat (hfg) = 2046.5 kJ/kg from steam table at 8 bar Latent
heat addition for ‘m’ kg
= m x hfg
=
1 x 1 x (2046.5)
= 2046.5 kJ/kg Total heat required = 579.34
+ 2046.5
= 2625.84
kJ/kg --- Ans
Heat required = Sensible
heat addition + Latent heat addition + Sensible Heat addition Sensible heat
addition to superheated steam
=
m Cpv (Tsup – ts)
= 1 x 2.093 x (305 – 170.4)
= 281.72 kJ/kg
Latent heat addition / kg = hfg
Latent heat (hfg) = 2046.5 kJ/kg from steam table at 8
bar Total heat required = 579.34 + 2046.5
+ 281.72
= 2907.56 kJ/kg --- Ans
Ideal Gas:
Perfect gas, also called ideal gas, a gas that conforms,
in physical behaviour,
to a particular, idealized relation
between pressure, volume,
and temperature called
the general gas law.
Gas Laws:
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law Pressure is inversely
proportional to volume: p∞ 1/v Robert Boyle noticed that when the volume of a container holding an amount of gas is
increased, pressure decreases, and vice versa (while the temperature is held constant). Note that this is not a linear relationship
between p and V.
Charles’ Law:
Charles’ Law Volume
is directly proportional to temperature: V = cT, where c > 0 is constant. Scientist Jacque Charles noticed that if
air in a balloon is heated, the balloon expands. For an ideal gas, this relationship between
V and T should be linear (as long as pressure is constant).
Charles’ and Boyle’s Laws combined
Combine the two laws above: pV/T
= K, where k is a constant, = pV=mRT The Individual Gas Constant
- R
The Individual Gas
Constant depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight of the gas. The value is
independent of temperature. The induvidual gas constant, R, for a gas can be calculated from the
universal gas constant, Ru (given in
several units below), and the gas molecular weight, Mgas:
R = Ru/Mgas
In the SI system units are J/kg K.
The Universal Gas Constant
- Ru
The Universal Gas
Constant - Ru - appears in the ideal gas law and can be expressed as the product between the Individual Gas
Constant - R - for the particular gas - and the Molecular Weight - Mgas - for the gas, and
is the same for all ideal
or perfect gases:
Ru = Mgas R,
kJ/(kmol.K) : 8.3144598 The
Molecular weight of a Gas Mixture
The average molecular
weight of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the mole fractions of each gas multiplied by the molecular weight of that
particular gas:
Mmixture = Σxi*Mi = (x1*M1 +.... + xn*Mn)
where
xi
= mole fractions of each gas Mi = the
molar mass of each gas Throttling
Process:
The porous plug experiment
was designed to measure temperature changes when a fluid flows steadily through a porous plug which is inserted in a
thermally insulated, horizontal pipe. The apparatus used by Joule and
Thomson is shown in Figure
A
gas at pressure and temperature flows continuously through a porous plug in a
tube and emerges into a space which is maintained at a constant
pressure. The device is thermally
insulated and kept horizontal. Consider
the dotted portion
as control volume.
These results
in
Therefore, whenever a fluid
expands from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure
through a porous plug, partially
opened valve or some obstruction, without exchanging any
energy as heat and work with the surrounding (neglecting, the changes in PE and KE), the enthalpy of the fluid remains constant,
and the fluid is said to have undergone a throttling process.
Free expansion (or unresisted
expansion) process. A free expansion occurs when a fluid is allowed to expand suddenly into a vaccum
chamber through an orifice of large dimensions. In this process, no heat is supplied or rejected and no external
work is done. Hence the total heat
of the fluid remains constant. This type of expansion may also be called as
constant total heat expansion. It is thus obvious, that in a
free expansion process,
Q1-2 = 0, W1-2 = 0 and dU = 0.
van der Waals Equation of State:
The ideal gas law treats the
molecules of a gas as point particles with perfectly elastic collisions. This works well for dilute
gases in many experimental circumstances. But gas molecules are not point masses, and there are circumstances
where the properties of the molecules have an experimentally measurable effect. A modification of the ideal gas law was
proposed by Johannes D. van der Waals in 1873 to take into account molecular
size and molecular interaction forces. It is usually referred
to as the van der Waals equation of state.
The
constants a and b have positive values and are characteristic of the individual
gas. The van der Waals equation of
state approaches the ideal gas law PV=nRT as the values of these constants approach zero. The
constant a provides a correction for the intermolecular forces. Constant b is a correction for finite molecular size and
its value is the volume of one mole
of the atoms or molecules.
Since the constant b
is an indication of molecular volume, it could be used to estimate the radius of an atom or molecule, modeled as a
sphere. Fishbane et al. give the value of b for nitrogen gas as 39.4
x 10-6 m3/mol.
UNIT-IV
Mixtures of perfect Gases:
A mixture, consisting
of several pure substances, is referred to as a solution. Examples of pure substances are water, ethyl alcohol,
nitrogen, ammonia, sodium chloride, and iron.
Examples of mixtures are air, consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and a
number of other gases, aqueous
ammonia solutions, aqueous solutions of ethyl alcohol, various metal alloys.
The pure substances making up a mixture are called components or constituents.
Mixture of ideal gases
Basic assumption is that the gases
in the mixture do not interact
with each other.
Consider a mixture with components
l = 1,2,3... with masses
m1, m2, m3 ...mi and with number of moles.
The
total mixture occupies a volume V,
has a total pressure P and temperature T (which is also the
temperature of each of
the component species)
The total mass
(4.1)
Total number of
mole N
(4.2)
Mass fraction
of species i
Mole fraction
of species i
The
mass and number of moles of
species i are related
by
is the number of moles of species i and is the
molar mass of species i
Also to be noted
(4.3)
(4.4)
(4.5)
and |
(4.6) |
We can also
define a molar mass of the mixture as
(4.7)
or,
or,
Dalton
's Law of partial pressure
Total pressure of an ideal gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the constituent components, That is
(4.9)
P is the total pressure of the
mixture Pi is the partial pressure
of species i
= pressure
of the species if it existed alone in the given temperature T and volume
V
(4.10)
is the universal gas constant = 8.314
kJ/k mol K
Amagat's Law:
Volume of an
ideal gas mixture
is equal to the sum of
the partial volumes
(4.11)
V
= total volume of the mixture
Vi = partial volume
of the species i
= volume
of the species if it existed alone
in the given temperature T and pressure
For
an ideal gas
Amagat's
Law
Or
The volume
fraction of species I
or,
Volume fraction
= Mole fraction
Mass based analysis is known as gravimetric analysis
Mole based analysis is known
as molar analysis
Mole Fraction:
(4.12)
(4.13)
(34.16)
The composition of a
gas mixture can be described by the mole fractions of the gases present. The mole fraction ( X ) of any
component of a mixture is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total number of moles of all the
species present in the mixture ( ntot
):
xA=moles of A/total moles
=na/ntot
=nA/(nA+nB+⋯)
The mole fraction is a dimensionless quantity between 0 and 1.
If xA=1.0 , then the sample is pure A , not a mixture. If xA=0 , then no A is present
in the mixture.
The sum of the mole fractions of all the components present
must equal 1.
To see how mole fractions can
help us understand the properties of gas mixtures, let’s evaluate the ratio of the pressure of a gas A to
the total pressure of a gas mixture that contains A . We can use the ideal gas law to
describe the pressures of both gas A and the
mixture: PA=nART/V and Ptot=ntRT/V . The ratio of
the two is thus
PA/Ptot= nA/ntot=xA PA=XAPtot
Mass Fraction:
the mass fraction of a substance
within a mixture is the ratio of the mass of that substance to the total mass
of the mixture.
Expressed as a formula, the mass
fraction is According to the
conservation of mass, we have:
Atmospheric Air:
Atmospheric air makes up the
environment in almost every type of air conditioning system. Hence a thorough understanding of the
properties of atmospheric air and the ability to analyze various processes involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of
many gases plus water vapour and a number of pollutants The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place to
place. The concentration of water
vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude, and above an altitude of about 10
km, atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The pollutants have to be filtered out before processing the air. Hence, what we process
is essentially a mixture of various gases that
constitute air and water vapour. This mixture
is known as moist air.
Psychrometric Properties:
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist
air as measured by a standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.
Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial
pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables
and charts.
ASHRAE suggests the following
regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of water, which is valid for 0 to 100oC.
Relative humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the
mole fraction of water vapour in moist air to
mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure. Using perfect
gas equation we can show that:
UNIT-V
Gas Power Cycles Introduction
For the purpose of thermodynamic analysis
of the internal combustion engines,
the following approximations are made:
Ø The engine is
assumed to operate on a closed cycle with a fixed mass of air which does not undergo
any chemical change.
Ø The combustion
process is replaced by an equivalent energy addition process from an external source.
Ø The exhaust
process is replaced by an equivalent energy rejection process to external surroundings by means of which
the working fluid is restored to the initial
state.
Ø The air is assumed
to behave like an ideal gas with constant specific
heat. These cycles are usually referred to as air standard cycle.
Otto Cycle
The Air Standard Otto cycle is
named after its inventor Nikolaus A.
Otto . Figures 5.1 (a), (b) and
(c) illustrate the working principles of an Otto cycle. The Otto cycle consists
of the following processes.
Figure 5.1
0-1: Constant pressure suction
during which a mixture of fuel vapour and air is drawn into the cylinder as the piston
executes an outward stroke.
1-2: The mixture is compressed isentropically due to the inward motion of the piston.
Because of the isentropic compression , the temperature of the gas increases.
2-3: The hot fuel vapour-air
mixture is ignited by means of an electric spark. Since the combustion is instantaneous, there is not
enough time for the piston o move outward. This process is approximated as a constant volume
energy addition process
.
3-4:
The hot combustion products undergo isentropic
expansion and the piston executes an outward motion.
4-1: The exhaust port opens and the combustion products are exhausted
into the atmosphere. The process is conveniently approximated as a constant-volume energy rejection
process.
1-0: The remaining
combustion products are exhausted by an inward motion of the piston at constant pressure.
Effectively there are four
strokes in the cycle. These are suction, compression, expression, and exhaust strokes, respectively. From
the P-V diagram it can be observed that the work done during the process 0-1 is exactly balanced by the work done
during 1-0. Hence for the purpose of
thermodynamic analysis we need to consider only the cycle 1-2-3-4, which is
air- standard Otto Cycle.
(5.1)
Where and denote the energy absorbed
and energy rejected
in the form of heat.
Application of the first law of thermodynamics to process 2-3 and 4-1 gives:
(5.2)
(5.3)
Therefore,
(5.4)
1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic processes
for which constant Therefore,
(5.5)
and
But
Hence
So,
or
and
(5.6)
(5.8)
or |
(5.9) |
(5.10)
or |
(5.11) |
(5.12)
(5.13)
Where
Compression ratio |
(5.14) |
Since , the efficiency of the Otto cycle
increases with increasing compression ratio.
However, in an actual engine,
the compression ratio can not be increased
indefinitely since
higher compression ratios give higher values of
and this leads
to spontaneous and uncontrolled combustion of the gasoline-air mixture in the cylinder. Such a condition
is usually called knocking.
Figure 5.2
Performance
of an engine is evaluated in terms of the efficiency (see Figure 5.2). However, sometime it is convenient to describe the
performance in terms of mean effective pressure, an imaginary pressure obtained by equating the cycle work to the
work evaluated by the following the relation
(5.15)
The mean effective
pressure is defined as the net work divided by the displacement volume. That is
DIESEL CYCLE
Figure 5.3
(a), (b) and (c)
The Diesel
cycle was developed
by Rudolf Diesel
in Germany. Figures
5.3 (a), (b) and
(c)
explain the working principle of an Air
Standard Diesel cycle. The following are the
processes.
0-1: Constant pressure
suction during which fresh air is drawn into the cylinder as the piston executes
the outward motion.
1-2: The air is compressed
isentropically. Usually the compression ratio in the Diesel cycle is much higher them that of Otto cycle. Because
of the high compression ratio, the temperature of the gas at the end of
isentropic compression is so high that when fuel is injected, it gets ignited immediately.
2-3: The fuel is injected into
the hot compressed air at state 2 and the fuel undergoes a chemical
reaction. The combustion of Diesel oil in air is not as spontaneous as the combustion of gasoline and the combustion is relatively slow. Hence the piston starts moving outward
as combustion take place. The combustion processes
is conveniently approximated as a constant pressure energy addition
process.
3-4: The combustion
products undergo isentropic expansion and the piston executes an outward
motion.
4-1:
The combustion products are exhausted at constant volume when the discharge
port opens. This is replaced
by a constant-volume energy rejection
process.
1-0: The remaining
combustion products are exhausted at constant pressure by the inward motion of
the piston.
In the
analysis of
a
Diesel
cycle,
two
important parameters are:
compression
ratio and the cut-off ratio . The cut-off ratio is defined as the
ratio of the volume at the end of constant-pressure energy addition process
to the volume at the beginning of the energy addition
process.
(5.16) |
(5.17) |
Energy added |
Energy rejected |
(5.18) |
(5.19)
or
(5.20)
1-2 is Isentropic:
4-1 is Constant volume:
But
Hence
Since 1−2 and
3−4 are isentropic processes
and
Hence
Also to be noted
(5.21)
(5.22)
(5.23)
The compression ratios normally in the Diesel
engines vary between
14 and 17.
AIR STANDARD
DUAL CYCLE
Figures 5.4 (a) and (b) shows the
working principles of a Dual cycle. In the dual cycle, the energy addition is accomplished in two
stages: Part of the energy is added at constant volume and part of the energy is added at constant pressure. The
remaining processes are similar to
those of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. The efficiency of the cycle can
be estimated in the following way
Figure 5.4.1 (a) and (b)
Energy added
Energy rejected
or
The efficiency of the cycle can
be expressed in terms of the
following ratios
(5.24)
(5.25)
(5.25)
(5.26)
Compression ratio, |
(5.27) |
Cut-off ratio, |
(5.28) |
Expansion ratio, |
(5.28) |
Constant volume
pressure ratio, |
(5.29) |
(5.30) |
If |
If |
Comparison of Otto, Diesel
& Dual Cycles
For same compression ratio and heat rejection (Figures
5.5 (a) and (b))
Figure 5.5 (a) and (b)
1-6-4-5: Otto cycle
1-7-4-5: Diesel
cycle
1-2-3-45 Dual cycle
For
the same Q2 , the higher the Q1
, the higher is the cycle
efficiency
For the same maximum pressure
and temperature (Figures
5.6 (a) and (b))
Figure 5.6 (a) and (b)
1-6-4-5: Otto cycle
1-7-4-5: Diesel
cycle
1-2-3-45
Dual cycle Q1 is represented by:
Area |
under
6-4 |
for |
Otto cycle |
area |
under 7-4 |
for |
Diesel cycle |
and
area under 2-3-4 for Dual cycle and
Q2 is same for all
the cycles
QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I
1. Explain briefly
the following terms with diagram
(wherever necessary)
a.
Thermodynamic System,
Surroundings & Boundary
b.
Control Volume & Control
Surface
c.
Intensive & Extensive Property
d.
Path Function & Point Function
e.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
2. Describe the
working principle of constant volume gas thermometer with a neat sketch.
3.
State and explain
quasi- static process.
4. List out the causes
of irreversibility and explain.
5. State and explain first
law of thermodynamics with its corollaries.
6. Prove that ‘Energy’ is a point function of a system
undergoing change of state.
7. A stationary mass of gas is compressed without
friction from an initial state of 0.35 m
3 and 0.11MPa to a final state of 0.25 m 3 at constant pressure. There is a
transfer of 48.67 kJ of heat from the
gas during the process. How much does the internal energy of the gas
change?
8. 0.2m3
of air at 3 bar and 1200C is contained in a system. A reversible
adiabatic expansion takes place till
the pressure falls to 1.5 bar. The gas is then heated at constant pressure till enthalpy increases by 75 kJ. Calculate
the work done and the index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible polytropic process giving the same
work between the same initial and final states.
UNIT-II
1. Write notes on the following a) Limitations of first law of thermodynamics b)Thermal energy reservoir c) Heat engine
d) Heat pump e) COP
2. State and explain second law of thermodynamics with its
corollaries.
3. Explain
Carnot cycle with p-V and T-s diagrams and derive the expression for efficiency.
4.
Describe briefly
about Maxwell’s equations.
5.
What is reversed
Carnot heat engine? What are the limitations of Carnot cycle?
6. At the inlet to
a certain nozzle the enthalpy of fluid passing is 2800 kJ/kg, and the velocity is 50 m/s. At the discharge end
the enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
a. Find the velocity at exit
of the nozzle.
b.
If the inlet area is 900 cm2 and
the specific volume at inlet is 0.187 m3/kg, find the mass flow rate.
c. If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 m3/kg, find the exit area
of nozzle.
7. A steam turbine
operates under steady
flow conditions receiving
steam at the following state:
a. pressure 15 bar, internal
energy 2700 kJ/kg,
specific volume 0.17 m3/kg
and velocity 100 m/s. the exhaust of steam from the
turbine is at 0.1 bar with internal energy 2175 kJ/kg, specific volume 0.15 m3/kg
and velocity 300 m/s. The
intake is 3 meters above the exhaust. The turbine develops 35 kW and heat loss over the surface of turbine is 20
kJ/kg. Determine the steam flow rate through
the turbine.
8. A reversible engine receives heat from two thermal reservoirs maintained at constant temperature of 750 K and 500
K. The engine develops 100 kW and rejects 3600 kJ/min of heat to a heat sink at 250 K. Determine thermal efficiency of the engine
and heat supplied by each thermal reservoir.
UNIT-III
1.
Explain the phase change
of a pure substance on p-V-T surface.
2.
Describe briefly
about mollier chart.
3.
Describe the working of combined separating and throttling calorimeter.
4.
Explain briefly
about the vanderwaals equation of state.
5.
2 kg. of gas at a temperature of 200
C undergoes a constant pressure process until the temperature is 1000 C. Find the heat transferred,
ratio of specific heats, specific gas constant, work done, and change in entropy during the process. Take CV = 0.515 kJ/kg k, CP
= 0.6448 kJ/kgk.
6.
A container of 2 m3 capacity contains 10 kg of CO2 at 27°C. Estimate
the pressure exerted by CO2 by
using,a) Perfect gas equations and also using b) vanderwaals equation
7.
Atmospheric
air at 1.0132 bar has a DBT of 30°C and WBT
of 24°C. Compute,
(i) The partial
pressure of water
vapour
(ii)
Specific humidity
(iii)
The dew point temperature
(iv)
Relative humidity
(v)
Degree of saturation
(vi)
Density of air in
the mixture
(vii)
Density of the
vapour in the mixture
8.
A vessel of 0.04 m2 Contains
a mixture of saturated water and saturated
steam at a temperature
of 250°C. The Mass liquid present is 9kg . Find pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy and entropy and the internal energy.
UNIT-IV
1.
Write
notes on the following terms a) Mole Fraction b) Mass fraction c) Gravimetric and d)
volumetric Analysis.
2. Write notes on
the following terms a) Dry bulb Temperature b)Wet Bulb Temperature, c) Dew point Temperature d)Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature
e) Specific
Humidity f)Relative Humidity
3.
Explain the various terms involved psychrometric chart.
4. 2 kg. of gas at a temperature of 20 0 C undergoes
a constant pressure
process until the temperature is 100 0 C. Find the heat transferred, ratio of specific
heats, specific
gas constant, work done, and
change in entropy during the process. Take Cv = 0.515 kJ/kgk Cp
= 0.6448 kJ/kg k.
5.
a) Write
the differences between
gravimetric and volumetric analysis.
b) 1.8 kg of
oxygen at 480 C is mixed with 6.2 kg of nitrogen at the same
temperature. Both oxygen and nitrogen
are at the pressure of 102 k Pa before and after mixing. Find the increase in entropy.
6. A
mixture of ideal air and water vapour at a DBT of 22°C and a total pressure of
730 mm Hg abs has a temperature of
adiabatic saturation of 15°C. Calculate, (i) The specific humidity in gms per kg of dry air. (ii) The partial
pressure of water vapour. (iii) The relative humidity (iv) Enthalpy
of the mixture per kg of dry air.
7. An
air-water vapour mixture enters an adiabatic saturator at 30°C and leaves at 20°C, which is the adiabatic saturation
temperature. The pressure remains constant at
100 kPa. Determine the relative humidity and the humidity ratio of the inlet mixture.
8. State and explain
Daltons’ law of partial
pressures and Amgot’s
law of additive volumes.
UNIT-V
1.
With p-V and
T-s diagrams derive
the efficiency of otto cycle.
2.
With p-V and
T-s diagrams derive
the efficiency of Diesel
cycle.
3.
With p-V and
T-s diagrams derive
the efficiency of dual combustion cycle.
4.
Differentiate between
Otto cycle, diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle.
5.
With p-V and
T-s diagrams derive
the efficiency of Rankine
cycle.
6. An engine
working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure 1 bar and temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke.
At the end of compression stroke, the pressure is 11
bar. 210 kJ of heat is added at constant volume. Determine:
a.
Pressures, temperatures and volumes at salient points in the cycle.
b.
Percentage clearance.
c.
Efficiency.
d.
Mean effective
pressure.
7. In a Diesel
cycle, air a 0.1 MPa and 300 K is compressed adiabatically until the pressure rises to 5 MPa. If 700 kJ/kg of energy
in the form of heat is supplied at constant pressure,
determine the compression ratio, cutoff ratio, thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure.
8. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20, and the heat transferred to the working fluid per cycle
is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the compression process,
the pressure is 0.1 MPa and the temperature is 15°C. Consider ideal gas and constant specific
heat model. Determine the pressure and temperature
at each point in the cycle, The thermal efficiency, The mean effective pressure.
PROJECTS
1.
Fabrication of Solar air conditioning Machine
2.
A Project
on Water cooler
cum Water heater
by using refrigeration System
3.
Improving the performance of an
engine block for various cooling
fluids.
4.
A Project
on Fabrication of double reflection solar Cooker
5.
Experimental Investigation of Heat Recovery
from R744 based Refrigeration System
6.
Power Generation from Railway Track
7.
Air powered cars
8.
Air Powered
Bike
Video links
1.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTYGloPSGec
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJ_rsimoXV4
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQLkiErH9x4&feature=youtu.be
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cdccGqpcNRw
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5xR9rm6Zuc
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VRD_ihjEBY